Once World War II began, this Nazi-Zionist partnership quickly lapsed
for obvious reasons. Germany was now at war with the British Empire,
and financial transfers to British-run Palestine were no longer
possible. Furthermore, the Arab Palestinians had grown quite hostile
to the Jewish immigrants whom they rightfully feared might eventually displace them, and once the Germans were forced to choose between maintaining their relationship with a relatively small Zionist
movement or winning the political sympathy of a vast sea of Middle
Eastern Arabs and Muslims, their decision was a natural one. The
Zionists faced a similar choice, and especially once wartime
propaganda began so heavily blackening the German and Italian
governments, their long previous partnership was not something they
wanted widely known.
However, at exactly this same moment a somewhat different and equally long-forgotten connection between Jews and Nazi Germany suddenly moved
to the fore.
Like most people everywhere, the average German, whether Jewish or
Gentile, was probably not all that political, and although Zionism had
for years been accorded a privileged place in German society, it is
not entirely clear how many ordinary German Jews paid much attention
to it. The tens of thousands who emigrated to Palestine during that
period were probably motivated as much by economic pressures as by ideological commitment. But wartime changed matters in other ways.
This was even more true for the German government. The outbreak of a
world war against a powerful coalition of the British and French
empires, later augmented by both Soviet Russia and the United States, imposed the sorts of enormous pressures that could often overcome ideological scruples. A few years ago, I discovered a fascinating 2002
book by Bryan Mark Rigg, Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers, a scholarly
treatment of exactly what the title implies. The quality of this controversial historical analysis is indicated by the glowing
jacket-blurbs from numerous academic experts and an extremely
favorable treatment by an eminent scholar in The American Historical
Review.
Obviously, Nazi ideology was overwhelmingly centered upon race and considered racial purity a crucial factor in national cohesion.
Individuals possessing substantial non-German ancestry were regarded
with considerable suspicion, and this concern was greatly amplified if
that admixture was Jewish. But in a military struggle against an
opposing coalition possessing many times Germany’s population and industrial resources, such ideological factors might be overcome by practical considerations, and Rigg persuasively argues that some
150,000 half-Jews or quarter-Jews served in the armed forces of the
Third Reich, a percentage probably not much different than their share
of the general military-age population.
Germany’s long-integrated and assimilated Jewish population had always been disproportionately urban, affluent, and well-educated. As a
consequence it is not entirely surprising that a large proportion of
these part-Jewish soldiers who served Hitler were actually combat
officers rather than merely rank-and-file conscripts, and they
included at least 15 half-Jewish generals and admirals, and another
dozen quarter-Jews holding those same high ranks. The most notable
example was Field Marshal Erhard Milch, Hermann Goering’s powerful second-in-command, who played such an important operational role in
creating the Luftwaffe. Milch certainly had a Jewish father, and
according to some much less substantiated claims, perhaps even a
Jewish mother as well, while his sister was married to an SS general.
Admittedly, the racially-elite SS itself generally had far stricter
ancestry standards, with even a trace of non-Aryan parentage normally
seen as disqualifying an individual from membership. But even here,
the situation was sometimes complicated, since there were widespread
rumors that Reinhard Heydrich, the second-ranking figure in that very powerful organization, actually had considerable Jewish ancestry. Rigg investigates that claim without coming to any clear conclusions,
though he does seem to think that the circumstantial evidence involved
may have been used by other high-ranking Nazi figures as a point of
leverage or blackmail against Heydrich, who stood as one of the most important figures in the Third Reich.
As a further irony, most of these individuals traced their Jewish
ancestry through their father rather than their mother, so although
they were not Jewish according to rabbinical law, their family names
often reflected their partly Semitic origins, though in many cases
Nazi authorities attempted to studiously overlook this glaringly
obvious situation. As an extreme example noted by an academic reviewer
of the book, a half-Jew bearing the distinctly non-Aryan name of
Werner Goldberg actually had his photograph prominently featured in a
1939 Nazi propaganda newspaper, with the caption describing him as the “The Ideal German Soldier.”
The author conducted more than 400 personal interviews of the
surviving part-Jews and their relatives, and these painted a very
mixed picture of the difficulties they had encountered under the Nazi regime, which varied enormously depending upon particular
circumstances and the personalities of those in authority over them.
One important source of complaint was that because of their status, part-Jews were often denied the military honors or promotions they had rightfully earned. However, under especially favorable conditions,
they might also be legally reclassified as being of “German Blood,” which officially eliminated any taint on their status.
Even official policy seems to have been quite contradictory and
vacillating. For example, when the civilian humiliations sometimes
inflicted upon the fully Jewish parents of serving half-Jews were
brought to Hitler’s attention, he regarded that situation as
intolerable, declaring that either such parents must be fully
protected against those indignities or all the half-Jews must be
discharged, and eventually in April 1940 he issued a decree requiring
the latter. However, this order was largely ignored by many
commanders, or implemented through a honor-system that almost amounted
to “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell,” so a considerable fraction of half-Jews remained in the military if they so wished. And then in July 1941,
Hitler somewhat reversed himself, issuing a new decree that allowed “worthy” half-Jews who had been discharged to return to the military
as officers, while also announcing that after the war, all
quarter-Jews would be reclassified as fully “German Blood” Aryan citizens.
It has been said that after questions were raised about the Jewish
ancestry of some of his subordinates, Goering once angrily responded
“I will decide who is a Jew!” and that attitude seems to reasonably capture some of the complexity and subjective nature of the social situation.
Interestingly enough, many of part-Jews interviewed by Rigg recalled
that prior to Hitler’s rise to power, the intermarriage of their
parents had often provoked much greater hostility from the Jewish
rather than the Gentile side of their families, suggesting that even
in heavily-assimilated Germany, the traditional Jewish tendency toward ethnic exclusivity had still remained a powerful factor in that
community.
Although the part-Jews in German military service were certainly
subject to various forms of mistreatment and discrimination, perhaps
we should compare this against the analogous situation in our own
military in those same years with regard to America’s Japanese or
black minorities. During that era, racial intermarriage was legally prohibited across a large portion of the US, so the mixed-race
population of those groups was either almost non-existent or very
different in origin. And when Japanese-Americans were allowed to leave
their wartime concentration camps and enlist in the military, they
were entirely restricted to segregated all-Japanese units, but with
the officers generally being white. Meanwhile, blacks were almost
entirely barred from combat service, though they sometimes served in strictly-segregated support roles. The notion that an American with
any appreciable trace of African, Japanese, or for that matter Chinese ancestry might serve as a general or even an officer in the U.S.
military and thereby exercise command authority over white American
troops would have been almost unthinkable. The contrast with the
practice in Hitler’s own military is quite different than what
Americans might naively believe.
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